关于nuclear小知识很多朋友都还不太明白，不过没关系，因为今天小编就来为大家分享关于细菌的知识点的知识点，相信应该可以解决大家的一些困惑和问题，如果碰巧可以解决您的问题，还望关注下本站哦，希望对各位有所帮助！
。。。本来是第2个回的。回完了才想起来没把中文的发上。可是在回复中又显示不出我的回复。半天才有。。。害我等了半天才重新编辑。
希望可以帮到你吧。
Understood that the earthquake and the earthquake protect the general knowledge了解地震与地震防护常识
(1) earthquake is the common natural phenomenon地震是常见自然现象
The earthquake and daily sees the wind and rain, the thunder and lightning are the same, is one kind of more universal natural phenomenon. Statistics indicated that the world approximately has 5,000,000 times every year the earthquake, but 99% above earthquakes are the small earthquakes, the people are not easy to feel. But the intense burst characteristics earthquake often causes the human to be unexpected, thus causes the personnel casualty and the huge economic loss.地震和日常所见的风雨、雷电一样，是一种较为普遍的自然现象。据统计，全世界每年约发生500万次地震，不过99％以上的地震是微小地震，人们不容易感觉到。但强烈的突发性地震往往使人猝不及防，从而造成人员伤亡和巨大的经济损失。
(二) earthquake's origin地震的成因
The earth interior material does not stop the movement, will have an function in the rock layer tremendous strength. When this strength accumulates to the certain extent, may cause some crag the level to have, the distortion curving. Once the rock layer cannot withstand this kind changed, will have the sudden breakage, moving out of place, caused the intense vibration, this kind of vibration was the earthquake which we usually said. The earth interior has earthquake's place to call the center of origin, the ground to be apart from the center of origin recent place to be called the epicenter earthquake's size to be possible to use the magnitude and the earthquake intensity weighs. When magnitude expression earthquake emit energy size; The intensity expressed that earthquake degree which destroys to the ground.地球内部物质不停运动，会产生一股作用于岩层的巨大力量。当这股力量积累到一定程度时，可使一些岩
层发生弯曲、变形。一旦岩层承受不了这种变化的时候，就会发生急剧的破裂、错动，引起强烈振动，这种振动就是我们平时所说的地震。
地球内部发生地震的地方叫震源，地面距震源最近的地方叫震中地震的大小可以用地震震级和地震烈度来衡量。震级表示地震时释放能量的大小；烈度表示地震对地面破坏的程度。
(三) Earthquake's type地震的种类
(1) Tectonic earthquake构造地震
The tectonic earthquake is the earthquake which the earth structure movement causes. When the composition earth's crust's rock layer under the crustal stress function, has the incline or the bending strain, the local stress continues to strengthen, accumulates to surpasses the limit which the rock layer can withstand, along rock layer structure weak place. Has the break or the dislocation suddenly, causes the energy which accumulates for a long time to release suddenly, and to all around disseminates by the earthquake wave form causes the ground vibration.构造地震是地球构造运动引起的地震。组成地壳的岩层在地应力作用下，发生倾斜或弯曲变形，当地应力继续增强，积累到超过岩层所能承受的限度时，沿着岩层构造薄弱的地方。突然发生断裂或错位，使长期积累起来的能量急剧地释放出来，并以地震波的形式向四周传播而引起地面的振动。
(2) Volcanic earthquake火山地震
The volcanic earthquake is causes by the volcanic eruption. The volcanic earthquake mainly has two kinds: One kind when is volcanic eruption, because the rock magma impact earth's crust or causes the earthquake which the local area rock layer occurs distorts and dislodges causes. After another kind is volcanic eruption, because the massive rock magma lose, the subsurface pressure reduces or the underground deep place supplies is inferior to, to present the cavity, thus causes the earthquake which the above cover's rock layer break or the collapse produce.火山地震是由火山爆发而引起的。火山地震主要有两种：一种是火山爆发时，由于岩浆冲击地壳或使局部地区岩层发生变形和变位而引起的地震。另一种是火山爆发后，由于大量岩浆损失，地下压力减小或地下深处补给不及，出现空洞，从而引起上面覆盖的岩层断裂或塌陷而产生的地震。
(3) The depression earthquake depression earthquake is the local earthquake which causes as a result of the underground limestone cave or the mine worked-out section's downcast.陷落地震陷落地震是由于地下溶洞或矿山采空区的陷落而引起的局部地震。
China earthquake intensity中国地震烈度
Ⅰ 1.9
Does not have the feeling, only the instrument can record无感，仅仪器能记录到
Ⅱ 2.5
The individual sensitive person in completely static has the feeling个别敏感的人在完全静止中有感
Ⅲ 3.1
The indoor small number of people have the feeling in the static, the suspension swings slightly
Ⅳ 3.7
Indoor most people, the outdoor small number of people have the feeling, suspension swinging. Not the steady household utensils make noise
Ⅴ 4.3
Outdoor most people have the feeling, the domestic animal do not go home, the windows and doors make noise, the wall surface presents the crack室外大多数人有感，家畜不回家，门窗作响，墙壁表面出现裂纹
Ⅵ 4.9
The human stands not steadily, the domestic animal escapes, the household utensils turn fall, crude shed lodging damage, steep ridge landslide人站立不稳，家畜外逃，器皿翻落，简陋棚舍损坏，陡坎滑坡
Ⅶ 5.5
The house slight damage, the memorial arch, the chimney damage, the surface presents the crack and spurts Sha Maoshui房屋轻微损坏，牌坊、烟囱损坏，地表出现裂缝及喷沙冒水
Ⅷ 6.1
The house has the damage, minority roadbed landslide, underground duct breakage房屋多有损坏，少数路基塌方，地下管道破裂
Ⅸ 6.7
The house majority destructions, minority fall, avalanches and so on memorial arch, chimney, the railway rail is curving房屋大多数破坏，少数倾倒，牌坊、烟囱等崩塌，铁轨弯曲
Ⅹ 7.3
The house falls, the path destruction, the mountain stone massive avalanches, the water surface very rough seas throw the shore房屋倾倒，道路毁坏，山石大量崩塌，水面大浪扑岸
Ⅺ 7.9
The house collapses massively, roadbed dike big Duan Benghui, the surface has the very sweeping change房屋大量倒塌，路基堤岸大段崩毁，地表产生很大变化
Ⅻ 8.5
All building universal destruction, the terrain changes fiercely, the zoology and botany suffers destroys一切建筑物普遍毁坏，地形剧烈变化，动植物遭毁灭
(四) Earthquake's destruction地震的破坏
When earthquake, because ground succession large scale vibration, thus has the huge destructive effect, causes buildings and so on house, bridge, railroad, road, reservoir to suffer the degree different destruction.地震时，由于地面连续发生大幅度的振动，从而产生巨大的破坏作用，造成房屋、桥梁、铁路、公路、水库等建筑物遭受程度不同的破坏。
(五) Earthquake omen地震前兆
The earthquake, before specially the violent earthquake occurs, the general meeting appears…`abnormal phenomena. The people observe- to occur with the earthquake have the close contacting abnormal phenomenon to be called the earthquake omen.地震，特别是强地震发生之前，总会出现…‘些异常现象。人们把观察到的—些与地震发生有密切联系的异常现象称为地震前兆。
(1) The ground water is unusual地下水异常
(2)The animal is unusual动物异常
(3) Flashes of light preceding an earthquake and earthquake sounds地光和地声
The flashes of light preceding an earthquake and the earthquake sounds are the earthquake eve either when the earthquake makes luminous and the sound from underground or the ground, is important near shakes the omen. Before shaking, the flash, the sound production, shines, sees this sentiment, suitable decisive, fast motion, few dangers.地光和地声是地震前夕或地震时从地下或地面发出的光亮及声音，是重要的临震预兆。临震前，一瞬间，地发声，又发光，见此情，宜果断，速行动，少危险。
(六) Earthquake prediction issue地震预报的发布
The country practices the unification issue system to the earthquake prediction. The earthquake short-term forecast and near shakes the predict that by the province, the autonomous region, the municipality people's government the procedure issue which stipulated according to the State Council. Other any unit and individual has no right to issue the earthquake prediction news.国家对地震预报实行统一发布制度。地震短期预报和临震预报，由省、自治区、直辖市人民政府按照国务院规定的程序发布。其他任何单位和个人都无权发布地震预报消息。
(七) Before how to prepare for earthquake's怎样做好地震前的准备
1.Understands the earthquake knowledge, grasps the quakeproof emergency procedures了解地震知识，掌握防震应急措施。 2. Believes the science, opposes to blindly believe, does not readily believe the earthquake rumor相信科学，反对迷信，不轻信地震谣言。 3. Is clear about the evacuation route, to seek asylum the place, prepares to seek asylum with the rescue goods. Usually must prepare the skilled person flashlight, the cigarette lighter, the radio, suffices food which and tap water three days use.明确疏散路线、避难地点，准备好避难和营救的物品。通常需准备好手电筒、打火机、收音机，够三天用的食物和饮用水。 4 Reinforces the indoor furniture sundry goods, places objects and so on high place small thing, picture frame to shift to the floor on, avoids the furniture sundry goods when the earthquake reverses falls creates the injury accident..加固室内家具杂物，把放在高处的小物件、镜框等物体转移到地板上，避免家具杂物在地震时翻倒掉落造成伤害事故。 5.Assigns when the earthquake individual emergency duty, specially protects from fire; When leaves home, should turn off the fuel gas stove, the extinguishment furnace fire, the dump and so on; Must protect old person the child; Carries the quakeproof thing and so on to carry out the human according to the duty division of labor, avoids shaking time flustered, cannot attend to one thing without losing track of another thing.分配地震时个人应急任务，特别是防火；离家时，应关好燃气灶，熄灭炉火，切断电源等；要保护老人小孩；所携带防震用品等应按任务分工落实到人，避免震时忙乱，顾此失彼。(八) When earthquake takes refuge from danger personally地震时个人避险
The ruinous earthquake from occurs collapses to the house, generally has several second time. As individual, how in instantaneous to make the choice which calmly takes refuge from danger correctly?破坏性地震从发生到房屋倒塌，一般只有十几秒的时间。作为个人，如何在瞬间冷静地作出正确避险的抉择呢?
1. In building: Is far away from the outer wall and the windows and doors rapidly, may choose the space which standard widths and so on kitchen, bathroom small, are not easy to cave to shock proof, do not jump from an upper story, also cannot use the elevator.在楼房：迅速远离外墙及门窗，可选择厨房、浴室等开间小、不易塌落的空间避震，千万不要跳楼，也不能使用电梯。
2. In one-story house: When runs without enough time the outdoors, but hides rapidly nearby the table, the bed and the firm furniture or suffers the lower part of wall tightly, attention protection forehead在平房：来不及跑出户外时，可迅速躲在桌子、床下和坚固家具旁或紧挨墙根，注意保护头部。
3. In outdoors: Avoids the big building, is far away from the high tension line, the big billboard在户外：避开高大建筑物，远离高压线、大的广告牌。
4. In workshop: Switches off the power source friendly source rapidly, nearby hides nearby the firm machine, the equipment or the office furniture在工作间：迅速关掉电源和气源，就近躲藏在坚固的机器、设备或办公家具旁。
5. In public place: In places and so on station, theater, classroom, store, subway, must maintain calm, chooses hides place, then obeys the direction, the order evacuation. Do not jump from an upper story blindly, also do not crowd on the staircase, the corridor.after在公共场所：在车站、剧院、教室、商店、地铁等场所，要保持镇静，就地选择躲藏处，然后听从指挥，有序撤离。不要盲目跳楼，也不要拥挤在楼梯、过道上。
(九) earthquake, helps oneself to rescue mutually地震后自救互救
The seismic region populace, between the family, the neighborhood help oneself to rescue mutually particularly, is reduces when the earthquake personnel casualty's effective measure-.震区群众，尤其是家庭、邻里之间的自救互救，是减少地震时人员伤亡的有效手段之—。
1. Is buried the courage which the personnel first want to blow up seek livehood, must eliminate the dread, can leave the dangerous situation, should the idea be separated from the dangerous situation as soon as possible.被埋压人员首先要鼓起求生的勇气，要消除恐惧心理，能自我离开险境者，应尽快想法脱离险境。
2.is buried when the personnel cannot be out of danger, tries the hands and feet to work loose, clear decompression on own body's object, specially abdomen above pressure thing, waiting rescue. May use the towel, clothes and so on to cover the oronasal, maintains the breath is unobstructed, prevents the mist and dust to choke into suffocates.被埋压人员不能自我脱险时，设法将手脚挣脱出来，清除压在自己身上的物体，特别是腹部以上的压物，等待救援。可以用毛巾、衣服等捂住口鼻，保持呼吸通畅，防止烟尘呛入窒息。
3. Is buried the personnel to maintain is clear-headed, cannot call for help loudly, preserves the physical strength, the waiting rescue. Should use all means and the outside relates, available stone rap object, or when hearing some people only then calls for help被埋压人员要保持头脑清醒，不可大声呼救，以保存体力，等待救援。应利用一切办法与外界联系，可用石块敲击物体，或在听到外面有人时才呼救。
4. Is buried the heavy item which the personnel should support possibly crash, the expansion safe existing space, finally to has the optical fiber and the air circulation traverse, is separated from the dangerous situation. If is out of danger incapable time, should reduce the physical strength consumption as far as possible, in may the activity space, try to seek for substitution food and the water, the creation survival requirement, the waiting rescue.被埋压人员应支撑可能坠落的重物，扩大安全生存空间，最后向有光线和空气流通的方向移动，以脱离险境。若无力脱险时，应尽可能减少体力消耗，在可活动空间里，设法寻找代用食品和水，创造生存条件，等待救援。
5. The organization family, the neighborhood rescue mutually. The family personnel and the neighborhood knew very well that is buried the personnel position, but carries on the rescue promptly. Must pay attention in saving others listens to be stranded the personnel to shout, the groan, to rap sounds and so on utensil.组织家庭、邻里互救。家庭人员和邻里熟知被埋压人员位置，可及时进行抢救。在救人中要注意听被困人员的呼喊、呻吟、敲击器物等声音。
6. Must according to characteristics and so on building frame, origin time, or listens attentively through the inquiry, determined that after rolling the personnel position, again rescues, prevention of accident casualties要根据房屋结构、发震时刻等特点，通过询问或倾听，确定被团人员位置后，再行抢救，防止意外伤亡。
7. When saving others must rescue in the building border rubble first survivor. In the rubble piles, must rescue promptly occupies the house first floor or has not been destructed completely in the basement survivor.救人时要先抢救建筑物边沿瓦砾中的幸存者。在瓦砾堆中，要及时抢救处在房屋底层或未完全遭到破坏的地下室中的幸存者。
细菌是生物的主要类群之一，属于细菌域、细菌界，也是所有生物中数量最多的一类。其形状多样，主要有球状、杆状，以及螺旋状。细菌对人类活动有很大的影响。一方面，细菌是许多疾病的病原体，包括肺结核、淋病、炭疽病、梅毒、鼠疫、砂眼等疾病都是由细菌所引发。然而，人类也时常利用细菌，例如乳酪及酸奶和酒酿的制作、部分抗生素的制造、废水的处理等，都与细菌有关。
一、基本形态与大小
（1）球菌：
球菌是外形呈圆球形或椭圆形的细菌，直径0.5～1微米，有以下几种类型：①单球菌：单独存在，如尿素小球菌；②双球菌：如肺炎双球菌；③链球菌：如乳酸链球菌；④四联球菌：形成的4个细胞排列在一起，成田字，如四联球菌；⑤八叠球菌：如尿素生孢八叠球菌；⑥葡萄球菌：如金黄色葡萄球菌(Staphylococcus aureus)。
（2）杆菌：
外形为杆状的细菌称杆菌，常有长宽接近的短杆或球杆状菌，如甲烷短杆菌属(Methano—brevibacter)；长宽相差较大的棒杆状或长杆状菌，如枯草芽孢杆菌(Bacillus subtilis)、梭状杆菌(Bacterium fusiformis)；分枝状或叉状菌，如双歧杆菌属(Bifidobacterium)；竹节状(两端平截)，如炭疽芽孢杆菌(Bacillusanthracis)等。
按杆菌细胞的排列方式不同则有成对的双杆菌、呈链状的链杆菌，另外，常有栅状、“八”字状以及由鞘衣包裹在一起的丝状等多种。典型的杆菌有大肠杆菌、枯草杆菌、链杆菌、变形杆菌。
（3）螺旋状：
螺旋状的细菌称螺旋菌，一般长5～50微米，宽0.5～5微米，根据菌体的弯曲可分为：①弧菌(Vibrio)：螺旋不足一环者呈香蕉状或逗点状，如霍乱弧菌(Vibrio cholerae)；②螺菌(Spirillum)：满2～6环的小型、坚硬的螺旋状细菌，如小螺菌(Spirillum minor)；③螺旋体(Spirochaeta)：旋转周数多(通常超过6环)、体长而柔软的螺旋状细菌，如梅毒螺旋体(Treponema paUidum)。
二、细菌的结构
细菌的结构分为基本结构和特殊结构。基本结构是各种细菌都具有的结构，包括细菌的细胞壁、细胞膜、细胞质、核质。某些细菌特有的结构称为特殊结构，包括细菌的荚膜、鞭毛、菌毛、芽胞。
细胞壁
细胞壁（cell wall)位于菌细胞的最外层，包绕在细胞膜的周围，组成较复杂，并随细菌不同而异。革兰阳性菌和革兰阴性菌细胞壁的共有组分为肽聚糖，但各自有其特殊组分。
细胞壁厚度因细菌不同而异，一般为15-30nm。主要成分是肽聚糖，由N-乙酰葡糖胺和N-乙酰胞壁酸构成双糖单元，以β-1,4糖苷键连接成大分子。N-乙酰胞壁酸分子上有四肽侧链，相邻聚糖纤维之间的短肽通过肽桥（革兰阳性菌）或肽键（革兰阴性菌）桥接起来，形成了肽聚糖片层，像胶合板一样，粘合成多层。
肽聚糖中的多糖链在各物种中都一样，而横向短肽链却有种间差异。革兰阳性菌细胞壁厚约20～80nm，有15-50层肽聚糖片层，每层厚1nm，含20-40%的磷壁酸（teichoic acid），有的还具有少量蛋白质。革兰阴性菌细胞壁厚约10nm，仅2-3层肽聚糖，其他成分较为复杂，由外向内依次为脂多糖、细菌外膜和脂蛋白。此外，外膜与细胞之间还有间隙。
肽聚糖是革兰阳性菌细胞壁的主要成分，凡能破坏肽聚糖结构或抑制其合成的物质，都有抑菌或杀菌作用。如溶菌酶是N-乙酰胞壁酸酶，青霉素抑制转肽酶的活性，抑制肽桥形成。
细菌细胞壁的功能包括：①保持细胞外形，提高机械强度；②抑制机械和渗透损伤（革兰阳性菌的细胞壁能耐受20kg/cm2的压力）；③介导细胞间相互作用（侵入宿主）④；防止大分子入侵；⑤协助细胞运动和生长，分裂和鞭毛运动；⑥赋予细菌特定的抗原性以对抗生素和噬菌体的敏感性。
其中还有一些缺壁细菌，分为四类：①L型细菌，是指某些在实验室或宿主体内，通过自发突变，形成细胞壁缺陷的变异菌株；②原生质体，是指在人为条件下（用溶菌酶或青霉素）处理革兰阳性细菌，获得的无壁细胞；③球状体，是指在人为条件下，处理革兰阴性菌，获得的残留部分细胞壁的细胞；④支原体，是指在进化过程中获得的无壁的原核微生物。
细胞膜
是典型的单位膜结构，厚约8~10nm，外侧紧贴细胞壁，某些革兰阴性菌还具有细胞外膜。通常不形成内膜系统，除核糖体外，没有其它类似真核细胞的细胞器，呼吸和光合作用的电子传递链位于细胞膜上。某些进行光合作用的原核生物（蓝细菌和紫细菌），质膜内褶形成结合有色素的内膜，与捕光反应有关。某些革兰阳性细菌质膜内褶形成小管状结构，称为中膜体（mesosome）或间体，中膜体扩大了细胞膜的表面积，提高了代谢效率，有拟线粒体（Chondroid）之称，此外还可能与DNA的复制有关。
细胞质与核质体
细菌和其它原核生物一样，只有拟核，没有核膜，DNA集中在细胞质中的低电子密度区，称核区或核质体（nuclear body）。细菌一般具有1-4个核质体，多的可达20余个。核质体是环状的双链DNA分子，所含的遗传信息量可编码2000～3000种蛋白质，空间构建十分精简，没有内含子。由于没有核膜，因此DNA的复制、RNA的转录与蛋白质的合成可同时进行，而不像真核细胞的这些生化反应在时间和空间上是严格分隔开来的。
每个细菌细胞约含5000～50000个核糖体，部分附着在细胞膜内侧，大部分游离于细胞质中。细菌核糖体的沉降系数为70S，由大亚单位（50S）与小亚单位（30S）组成，大亚单位含有23SrRNA，5SrRNA与30多种蛋白质，小亚单位含有16SrRNA与20多种蛋白质。30S的小亚单位对四环素与链霉素很敏感，50S的大亚单位对红霉素与氯霉素很敏感。
细菌核区DNA以外的，可进行自主复制的遗传因子，称为质粒（plasmid）。质粒是裸露的环状双链DNA分子，所含遗传信息量为2~200个基因，能进行自我复制，有时能整合到核DNA中去。质粒DNA在遗传工程研究中很重要，常用作基因重组与基因转移的载体。
胞质颗粒是细胞质中的颗粒，起暂时贮存营养物质的作用，包括多糖、脂类、多磷酸盐等。
荚膜
许多细菌的最外表还覆盖着一层多糖类物质，边界明显的称为荚膜（capsule），如肺炎球菌，边界不明显的称为粘液层（slime layer），如葡萄球菌。荚膜对细菌的生存具有重要意义，细菌不仅可利用荚膜抵御不良环境；保护自身不受白细胞吞噬；而且能有选择地粘附到特定细胞的表面上，表现出对靶细胞的专一攻击能力。例如，伤寒沙门杆菌能专一性地侵犯肠道淋巴组织。细菌荚膜的纤丝还能把细菌分泌的消化酶贮存起来，以备攻击靶细胞之用。
另外在细菌入侵免疫系统时，荚膜可以防止免疫系统识别细菌，从而存活下来。
鞭毛
鞭毛是某些细菌的运动器官，由一种称为鞭毛蛋白（flagellin）的弹性蛋白构成，结构上不同于真核生物的鞭毛。细菌可以通过调整鞭毛旋转的方向（顺和逆时针）来改变运动状态。
菌毛
菌毛是在某些细菌表面存在着一种比鞭毛更细、更短而直硬的丝状物，须用电镜观察。特点是：细、短、直、硬、多，菌毛与细菌运动无关，根据形态、结构和功能，可分为普通菌毛和性菌毛两类。前者与细菌吸附和侵染宿主有关，后者为中空管子，与传递遗传物质有关。
芽孢
有些细菌在生长发育的后期，个体缩小，细胞壁增厚，形成芽孢。芽孢是细菌的休眠体，对不良环境有较强的抵抗能力。小而轻的芽孢还可以随风四处飘散，落在适当环境中，又能萌发成为细菌。细菌快速繁殖和形成芽孢的特性，使它们几乎无处不在。
某些细菌处于不利的环境，或耗尽营养时，形成内生孢子，又称芽孢，是对不良环境有强抵抗力的休眠体，由于芽孢在细菌细胞内形成，故常称为内生孢子。
芽孢的生命力非常顽强，有些湖底沉积土中的芽孢杆菌经500-1000年后仍有活力，肉毒梭菌的芽孢在pH 7.0时能耐受100℃煮沸5-9.5小时。芽孢由内及外有以下几部分组成：
1．芽孢原生质（spore protoplast，核心core）：含浓缩的原生质。
2．内膜（inner membrane）：由原来繁殖型细菌的细胞膜形成，包围芽孢原生质。还有细模质。
3．芽孢壁（spore wall）：由繁殖型细菌的肽聚糖组成，包围内膜。发芽后成为细菌的细胞壁。
4．皮质（cortex）：是芽孢包膜中最厚的一层，由肽聚糖组成，但结构不同于细胞壁的肽聚糖，交联少，多糖支架中为胞壁酐而不是胞壁酸，四肽侧链由L-Ala组成。
5．外膜（outer membrane）：也是由细菌细胞膜形成的。
6．外壳（coat）：芽孢壳，质地坚韧致密，由类角蛋白组成(keratinlike protein),含有大量二硫键，具疏水性特征。
7．外壁（exosporium）：芽孢外衣，是芽孢的最外层，由脂蛋白及碳水化合物(糖类)组成，结构疏松。
高中英语必修4知识点讲解
必修4 Unit1 Women of achievement知识点讲解
重点词汇
1. achieve
【课文原句】She has achieved everything she wanted to do…(P3)
【名师点拨】achieve v.意为“完成；达到”，指经过长期努力而达到某目标、地位或标准等。其名词形式为achievement，意为“成就；功绩”，a sense of achievement可指“成就感”。如：
He had finally achieved success.
Even a small success gives you a sense of achievement.
2. condition
【课文原句】She helped improve prison conditions and gave prisoners work and education.(P1)
【名师点拨】condition意为“环境；境况；条件”时，是可数名词，常用复数形式conditions；意为“状态；状况”时，是不可数名词，be in good condition表示“处于良好的状态”，be out of condition表示“健康状况不佳”。如：
We should pay more attention to the poor living under the bad conditions.
The astronauts soon got used to the condition of weightlessness.
My car is old but in good condition.
He is overweight and out of condition.
【知识拓展】condition意为“条件”时，常用短语on condition that，表示“如果；在……条件下”；在美国英语中，也经常用under the condition that。如：
I will come on condition that Peter is invited.
They agreed under the condition that the matter be dealt with quickly.
3. devote
【课文原句】She devoted all her life to medical work for Chinese women and children.(P1)
【名师点拨】devote vt.意为“投入于；献身”，其宾语后常与介词to搭配，to后接名词、代词或动名词。devote… to…意为“献身；致力于”，指把自己、时间、精力等奉献给某种工作或事业。如：
He has devoted his whole life to benefiting mankind.
The girl, to whom he was devoted, died in a traffic accident by chance.
After he has retired, he will devote himself to gardening.
4. behave
【课文原句】Jane has studied these animals for many years and helped people understand how much they behave like humans.(P2)
【名师点拨】behave vi& vt.意为“举动；举止；行为表现”，如behave well/ badly等。其名词形式为behaviour，指“行为；态度；举止”。如：
The parents encouraged the children to behave well in front of the guests.
My camera has been behaving well since it was repaired.
Everyone praises the children's good behaviour.
5. worthwhile
【课文原句】But the evening makes it all worthwhile.(P2)
【名师点拨】worthwhile adj.意为“值得做的；值得出力的”，可作表语或定语。be worthwhile to do/ doing sth表示“值得做……”，在动词-ing形式的结构中，worthwhile有时可以用来替代worth，特别是在表示“值得花时间”这一概念时。如：
I think teaching school is always a worthwhile job.
The book referred to by the professor is worthwhile/ worth reading.
6. observe
【课文原句】Jane spent many years observing and recording their daily activities.(P2)
【名师点拨】observe vt.意为“观察；观测；遵守”，可用observe sb do sth，observe+ that从句。其名词形式为observation。如：
I observed the man who murdered the boy enter the shop.
He observed that we should probably have rain.
Most information was collected by direct observation of the animals’ behaviour.
7. argue
【课文原句】She has argued for them to be left in the wild and not used for entertainment or advertisements.(P2)
【名师点拨】argue作动词时，意为“争论；争吵；争辩”。argue for意为“为……辩护”；argue with sb about/ over sth指“就某事和某人争论”；argue against意为“据理反对；争辩……”。如：
It is no use arguing for the plan because it has been rejected.
We are always arguing with each other about money.
Father argued fiercely against any increase in expenditure for the children’s annual party.
【知识拓展】argue的名词形式为argument，意为“争论；争端；论证”，常构成短语settle an argument指“解决争端”。
9. care for
【课文原句】It was a small book explaining how to cut the death rate from having and caring for babies by following some rules for keeping babies clean and healthy.(P6)
【名师点拨】care for可以表示look after的意思，意为“照顾；照料”，且较正式；也可表示“喜欢”的意思。如：
His son cared for him when he was ill.
In fact, I don’t really care for basketball.
另外，在上面的句子中，explain意为“解释，说明”，后可接名词、代词、从句或wh+ to do作宾语，可用explain sth to sb或explain to sb sth。如：
Will you explain to us how we can finish the work as soon as possible?
【知识拓展】care about意为“介意；在乎”，表示是否认为某事是重要的，某事是否引起了某人的兴趣或使其忧虑。最常用于疑问句或否定句中。about用在宾语前面，但是在连词前面一般省掉。
I don’t care about your opinion.
I don’t care whether it rains— I’m happy.
10. intend
【课文原句】I looked carefully at the text and realised that it was intended for women who lived in the countryside.(P6)
【名师点拨】intend v.意为“打算；计划；想要”。intend to do sth意为“想干某事”；intend后也可以接动词-ing形式或that从句。intend for表示“原打算给某人；准备让……干……”。如：
I intended to come to your house last night but it rained.
I intend coming/ to come back soon.
He hadn’t really intended that they should be there.
This gift is intended for you.
热点语法
主谓一致用法难点小结：
一、集合名词作主语时的主谓一致。
1.集合名词有family, team, group, party, class, public, club, crew, crowd, enemy, audience, company, committee, government, population等，当被看作一个整体时，表示单数意义，谓语动词用单数形式；如果这些集合名词指其中的每个成员，表示复数意义，谓语动词则用复数形式。即谓语动词的单复数要与主语的含义相一致。如：
My class is a big one, including thirty boys and thirty girls.
My class are working hard for the coming exam.
2.有些集合名词作主语时，谓语只能用复数形式，如：people, the police, the military, mankind, cattle等。如：
The police are searching for the lost child.
二、不定代词作主语时的主谓一致。
不定代词anyone, anybody, anything, everyone, everybody, everything, someone, somebody, no one, nobody, nothing, each, the other等作主语时，谓语动词用单数。如：
Everything goes well with me.
Each of the students in our class has an English-Chinese dictionary.
三、“名词＋名词”作主语时的主谓一致。
当表示同一人物或观点时，谓语动词用单数。如：A novelist and playwright is coming to our school.这里表示“一位小说家兼剧作家”，是同一个人，所以谓语动词用单数。
如果是A novelist and a playwright作主语，这时表示“一位小说家和一位剧作家”，是两个人，所以谓语动词用复数，该句应改为：A novelist and a playwright are coming to our school.
四、The＋ adj.作主语时的主谓一致。
当The＋ adj.表示抽象的含义时，谓语动词用单数。如：The beautiful is the true.
当The＋ adj.表示该类全体的含义时，谓语动词用复数。如：The rich should help the poor.
必修4 Unit 2 Working the land知识点讲解
Unit2 Working the land
Phrases and Idioms
1. be satisfied(with): pleased because you have got what you want
1) Jane isn't quite satisfied with the way the barber cut her hair.
2) If you are not completely satisfied, you can get your money back.
3) I am not really satisfied with the job you did.
2. refer to: a) mention or speak about someone or something
b) to look at a hook map, piece of paper, etc, for information
1) We agreed never to refer to the matter again.
2) Although she didn't mention any names, everyone knew who she was referring to.
3) He gave the speech without referring to his notes even once.
3. would rather: used to say what someone prefers
1) It seems you would rather play than work.
2)She would rather die than lose the children.
3) I would rather starve than be dependent on anyone again.
4. thanks to sb/ sth: because of sb./ sth.
1) I was late thanks to the heavy traffic.
2) It was thanks to his advice that I succeeded.
3) We've collected$50,000 for the poor, thanks to the generosity of the public.
5. rid of sb/sth: become free of
1) Will science- finally rid us of this disease?
2) Do you think it possible to rid the world of nuclear weapons?
3) By working hard day and night, she is trying to rid herself of loneliness and sadness.
6. lead a...life: live in the way what you life is like
1) Before liberation, my grandpa led a dog's life.
2) If the operation succeeds, the patient will be able to lead a normal life.
3) Mrs. Black is retired and leads a quiet and peaceful life in a mountain village.
7. care about: love; be interested in; be concerned with
1) Just listening to somebody shows you care about them.
2) Your parents are only doing this because they care about you.
3) The only thing this rich- and greedy man seems to care about is money.
8. insist on sth/doing sth: to demand that something must be done or that you must have a particular thing
1) The school insists on good behaviour from its students.
2) John insisted on doing all the work himself, though he was in poor health.
3) The old man insisted on helping me find a taxi even though I told him I didn't need any help.
必修4 Unit3 A taste of humor知识点讲解
Unit3重点汇集
1. content
【课文原句】Perhaps it makes us feel more content with our life because we feel there is someone else worse off than ourselves.(P17)
【名师点拨】content adj.意为“满足的；满意的”，be content to do意为“乐意去做某事”；be content with sb/ sth意为“对某人或某事感到满意”，相当于be pleased with或be satisfied with。如：
I’m content to help you to set up a website on the Internet.
Those who are not content with the progress they have made will have greater success.
注：worse off是badly off的比较级，意思是“境况比……更差”；better off意为“境况比……好”。如：
To my surprise, I found his living conditions were much worse off than mine.
With the development of economy, more and more people are better off.
【知识拓展】content还可作动词，意为“使满足”；作名词时，表示“满足；心满意足”，也可表示“（书、报纸等的）内容；目录；含量”。如：
My explanation seemed to content him.
Now she began to live in peace and content.
We've discussed the unusual form of the book— now, what about the content?
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